Zhang divided these factors into two; the amount of heat made available to the soil surface and the amount of heat dissipated from soil surface down the profile. Soil microbial activities decrease with low soil temperatures and at freezing point, most activities cease Allison. Soil macro-organisms do not survive in temperatures below freezing point. Increase in soil temperature decreases organic matter Ubeda et al.
This decrease in organic matter and reduction in clay size clay fraction as a result of high temperature leads to a decrease in the cation exchange capacity of the soil Certini. Yilvaiaio et al. Soils with low temperature have low availability of phosphorus because the release of phosphorus from organic material is hindered by low temperature Gahoonia et al.
Increase in soil temperature causes temperature induced dehydration of clay minerals in the soil leading to strong interactions among the clay particles which in turn yield less clay and more silt-sized particles in the soil Arocena et al. At soil temperature above 30oc, the aggregate stability of the soil increases Fox et al.
Reductions in soil moisture occur when increased soil temperatures decrease water viscosity, thus allowing more water to percolate through the soil profile Broadbent. Temperature influences the carbon dioxide content in the soil air. High temperature encourages micro-organism activity which results in higher production of carbon dioxide in the soil Allison.
Soil temperature has a great effect on plant growth by influencing water and nutrient uptake Toselli et al. Water uptake decreases with low temperature. This is due to the increased viscosity and decreased absorption rate of water at low temperature Toselli et al. The metabolic activities of micro-organisms play an important role in the cycling of nutrients in the soil and ensuring the nutrients are in a form available to plants.
Therefore increased metabolic activities of micro-organisms as a result of increase in soil temperature will stimulate the availability of nutrients for plants. Soil temperature also affects nutrient uptake by changing soil water viscosity and root nutrient transport Grossnickle, 46 Lahti et al.
Increase in soil temperature improves root growth because of the increase in metabolic activity of root cells and the development of lateral roots Repo et al. The soil is indispensable for the maintenance of plant life, affording mechanical support, supplying nutrients and water. The soil constitutes a major storage for heat. The soil temperature is a catalyst for many biological processes. Soil temperature influences soil moisture, aeration and availability of plant nutrients which are necessary for plant growth.
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Withdrawal Guidlines. Publication Ethics. Withdrawal Policies Publication Ethics. Advances in. Review Article Volume 8 Issue 1. The factors that affect the amount of heat supplied at the soil surface include; soil colour, 9 mulching Matthias et al.
Soil mulch : Horton et al. Consequently, these materials reduce the temperature on the soil surface Shinners et al. Slope of the land surface : Solar radiation that reaches the land surface at an angle is scattered over a wider area than the same amount of solar radiation reaching the surface of the land at right angles.
Therefore the amount of radiation per unit area of the land surface decreases as the slope of the land increases Elisabarashivilli et al. Vegetative cover : A bare soil quickly absorbs heat, becomes hot during the hot season and becomes cold during the cold season. Vegetation acts as a thermal insulator and significantly affects the soil temperature.
It also contributes to the dark colour of the soil. These two soil properties increase its absorption of heat, thereby increasing the soil temperature Fang et al.
Soil water utilises the energy from solar radiation to evaporate thereby rendering it unavailable for heating up of the soil. Solar radiation : This is the amount of heat from the sun that reaches the earth. The amount of radiation from the sun that a soil receives and absorbs affects the variability of soil temperature.
Soil moisture content : Moisture influences soil heat dissipation down the profile. The flow of heat is higher in a wet soil than in a dry soil where the pores are filled with air. The rate of heat dissipation increases with moisture content Ochsner et al. Soil structure Increase in soil temperature causes temperature induced dehydration of clay minerals in the soil leading to strong interactions among the clay particles which in turn yield less clay and more silt-sized particles in the soil Arocena et al.
Nutrient uptake The metabolic activities of micro-organisms play an important role in the cycling of nutrients in the soil and ensuring the nutrients are in a form available to plants.
Root growth Increase in soil temperature improves root growth because of the increase in metabolic activity of root cells and the development of lateral roots Repo et al. The climate near the ground. Wu J, Nofziger DL. Incorporating temperature effects on pesticide dug radiation into a management model. J environment Quali. Lehnert M. The soil temperature regime in the urban and suburban landscapes of olomoric, Czech Republic.
Morarian geographical reports. Probert RJ. The role of temperature in the regulation of seed dormancy and germination. In Fenner editor. Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities. England: CABI publishing; Analytical soil temperature model:correction for temporal variation of daily amplitude.
Soil science society of America Journal. Variations of soil temperature and soil moisture in Northern Tibetaplateau. Journal of Glaciology and Georcyology. Nwankwo C, Ogugurue D. An investigation of temperature variation at soil depths in peuts of Southern Nigeria.
American journal of environmental engineering. Optimum temperature range is very important. Low temperature affects several aspects of crop growth viz. If the cell size is large the probability of frost damage is high. Advective frosts are due to incursion of large masses of cold air over a region from the colder areas.
Occur on clear calm nights when heat is freely radiated from all exposed objects. This is caused due to sublimation of ice crystals on objects like tree branches.
The symptoms are noticed on young seedlings due to high soil temperature. The seedlings are killed. Stem girdle. Important for growth and development Optimum temperature is required for maximum dry matter accumulation. High night temperature — growth of shoot.
Chilling injury If the plants grown in hot temperature are exposed to low temperature, they will be killed or severely injured. A solvent for minerals and carbohydrates moving through the plant Responsible for cooling leaves as it evaporates from leaf tissue during transpiration A regulator of stomatal opening and closing, thus controlling transpiration and, to some degree, photosynthesis The source of pressure to move roots through the soil The medium in which most biochemical reactions take place Relative humidity is the ratio of water vapor in the air to the amount of water the air could hold at the current temperature and pressure.
Plant Nutrition Plant nutrition often is confused with fertilization. Mobile in plants. Succulent growth; dark green color; weak, spindly growth; few fruits. May cause brittle growth, especially under high temperatures. Reduced growth, yellowing chlorosis. Reds and purples may intensify in some plants. Reduced lateral bud breaks. Symptoms appear first on older growth. Uptake is inhibited by high P levels. The N:K ratio is extremely important. Indoors, the best N:K ratio is unless light is extremely high.
In soils with a high C:N ratio, more N should be supplied. Not readily mobile in plants. Shows up as micronutrient deficiency of Zn, Fe, or Co. Reduced growth. Color may intensify; browning or purpling of foliage in some plants. Thin stems, reduced lateral bud breaks, loss of lower leaves, reduced flowering. Rapidly bound fixed on soil P particles. Under acid conditions, fixed with Fe, Mg, and Al. Under alkaline conditions, fixed with Ca. Important for young plant and seedling growth.
High P interferes with micronutrient absorption and N absorption. Used in relatively small amounts when compared to N and K. Causes N deficiency in plant and may affect the uptake of other positive ions. Reduced growth, shortened inter-nodes.
Marginal burn or scorch brown leaf edges , necrotic dead spots in leaves. Reduction of lateral bud breaks, tendency to wilt readily. N:K balance is important. High N:low K favors vegetative growth; low N:high K promotes reproductive growth flowers, fruit. Interferes with Ca uptake. Reduction in growth. Marginal chlorosis, interveinal chlorosis yellow between the veins in some species may occur on middle or lower leaves. Reduction in seed production, cupped leaves. Mg commonly is deficient in foliage plants because it is leached and not replaced.
Epsom salts at a rate of 1 teaspoon per gallon may be used two times per year. Mg also can be absorbed by leaves if sprayed in a weak solution. Dolomitic limestone can be applied in outdoor situations to correct a deficiency. Moderately limited mobility in plants.
Interferes with Mg absorption. High Ca usually causes high pH, which then precipitates many micronutrients so that they become unavailable to plants. Inhibition of bud growth, death of root tips. Cupping of maturing leaves, weak growth. Blossom-end rot of many fruits, pits on root vegetables. Ca is important to pH control and rarely is deficient if the correct pH is maintained. Water stress too much or too little can affect Ca relations within plants, causing deficiency in the location where Ca was needed at the time of stress.
Sulfur S SO 4 - sulfate Leachable, not mobile in plants. Sulfur excess usually is in the form of air pollution. General yellowing of affected leaves or the entire plant. S often is a carrier or impurity in fertilizers and rarely is deficient. It also may be absorbed fro the air and is a by-product of combustion. Interveinal chlorosis, primarily on young tissue, which eventually may turn white.
Soil high in Ca, Mn, P, or heavy metals Cu, Zn ; high pH; poorly drained soil; oxygen-deficient soil; nematode attack on roots. Add Fe in the chelate form. The type of chelate needed depends on soil pH. Failure to set seed, internal breakdown, death of apical buds. Also interferes with Mg absorption.
Shows up as Fe deficiency. New growth small, misshapen, wilted. May be found in some peat soils. Interveinal chlorosis of leaves followed by brown spots, producing a checkered effect. Found under acid conditions. Molybdenum Mo MoO4- molybdate Interveinal chlorosis on older or midstem leaves, twisted leaves whiptail.
Chlorine Cl Cl- Salt injury, leaf burn. May increase succulence. Leaves wilt, then become bronze, then chlorotic, then die; club roots. Fertilizers Fertilizers are materials containing plant nutrients that are added to the environment around a plant. Nutrient absorption Anything that reduces or stops sugar production in leaves can lower nutrient absorption.
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